Whistle and Horns as Therapy Tools

History and Function

Horns or whistles have been used for thousands of years for spiritual, practical, and entertainment purposes. Originally they were simple devices that produced sound when air was forced through an opening.

Whistles were mainly made of bone or wood. One of the most distinctive whistles is the boatswain's pipe used aboard naval vessels to issue commands and salute dignitaries. It has evolved from pipes used in ancient Greece and Rome to keep the stroke of galley slaves. A medieval version was used during the Crusades to assemble English crossbow men on deck for an attack. Their loud, attention-getting blast made whistles essential for police officers and sports referees.

The modern era of whistle use began in 1878 when a whistle was first blown by a referee during a sporting event. Hudson, a toolmaker who was fascinated with whistles, fashioned a brass instrument that was used in a match at the Nottingham Forest Soccer Club. This device was found to be superior to the usual referee's signal of waving a handkerchief.

Horns originally were made from animal horns and primarily used as signaling devices. One of the earliest "horn-like" instruments, the lur, dates back to sixth century B.C. Made of bronze. These horns were used on the battlefields by Scandinavian clans.  It makes a loud, obnoxious sound, just perfect for striking terror into the enemy camp. The horn as a musical instrument has only existed for several hundred years.

In Europe, horns gained popularity in the trendy sport of hunting. As this aristocratic sport spread, horn-makers experimented with different shapes and sizes to increase the range of notes possible.  In 1636, French musical scholar Marin Mersenne wrote of four different kinds of horns in his Harmonie Universelle: Le grand cor (the big horn), the cor à plusiers tours, (the horn of several turns), le cor qui n'a qu'un seul tour (the horn which has only one turn), and le huchet (the horn with which one calls from afar). Horns such as the cor de chasse and trompe de chasse (pictured left) fall into this latter category.

In the modern days we use horns and whistles not only forgetting attention, hunting, or entertainment purposes but also as a very effective therapy tool. The speech therapists utilize them to correct articulation disorders, deal with deficits in phonation or breathe control, work with cleft palate repairs, teach velopharyngeal functions and improve speech clarity. Using horns as therapy devices is not only powerful, but most of all fun. When you use horns or whistles you deal with the development of muscles in three areas and in specific order: phonation through the abdominal muscles, resonation through muscles of the velum and articulation via the muscles in the jaw, lips and tongue. Traditional speech therapy without the proper muscle control cannot be completely successful, but it is equally important to remember that oral-motor therapy is an adjunct to traditional therapy, not a replacement. It is critical that clinicians not stop or replace their clients' current therapies in favor of oral-motor therapy, rather that they use it as an additional building block. When the targeted muscles do normalize, the introduction of traditional methods such as auditory feedback, or phonological processing approaches, attain measurably higher degrees of success.

Horn Therapy after Sara Rosenfeld-Johnson

Sara Rosenfeld-Johnson, M.S.,CCC/SLP, an oral-motor guru, has developed a program that includes fourteen progressively more complex horns. I personally attended the training led by the master and since then I’ve been often using the whistles, known also as horns.

Sara Rosenfeld-Johnson designated specific goals such as:

• correcting an interdental lisp,
• improving lip-rounding,
• working on specific phonemes.

She distinguished two broad categories of clients:

1. Clients with more severe problems, who start at the first horn and work to complete the entire hierarchy. These clients must successively master each horn until they reach horn fourteen, the final horn. This approach is suitable for the clients with Cerebral Palsy or Down Syndrome and could take up to two years.
2. Clients with less severed problems, whose specific needs can be treated by the use of individual horns that work on their personal speech deficits. This gives the clinician a methodic, scientific way to create an individualized program for each client that often is completed in four to five months. These exercises can be used by clients of all ability and age groups starting as young as eighteen months. In a few instances I have used them with clients as young as twelve months and had success with a client one hundred-four years old!

She put some facts under the following consideration:

• Clients who present lack of grading in only a jaw, tongue or lip are counted as the least impaired patients.
• Clients who have deficiencies in velopharyngeal closure must address those defects before the jaw, tongue or lip issues are addressed.
• Clients with abdominal deficiencies are considered the most severely impaired. In that case the jaw, tongue and lips cannot be addressed until the velum is addressed, and the velum cannot be addressed until the abdominal control for airflow is addressed.

Sara Rosenfeld-Johnson organized the horns by goals and the muscle movement required to produce phonemes. Not to repeat what was already said I will quote her article published on May 31, 1999 in ADVANCE Magazine.

”Each horn incrementally becomes a degree harder when working in the hierarchy, rechallenging the client's achievements in a rewarding way. They are suitable for group therapy environments, like those with school children, and some can be adapted to create interest for visually impaired clients. Horns are also an important part of a drooling program because they address awareness of lips, maintenance of lip closure and teach retraction of saliva back over the tongue, much of which can be taught without cognitive cooperation. With horn therapy even our clients with major deficits make significant therapeutic progress.

At the outset of the program, after diagnosis, the therapist introduces a target horn and determines the highest number of repetitions that can be achieved in rapid succession at one time without a break. The goal with each horn is to achieve twenty-five successive repetitions, taking a small breath between each blow. If the maximum number of repetitions produced is less than the targeted goal of twenty-five the therapist stops there and assigns the attained number as homework to be practiced each day. These exercises should be practiced at least twice a week with the therapist and, ideally, at least once a day at home. As each horn is mastered, the therapist introduces either the next horn in the hierarchy or the next horn appropriate to the client's goals. Parents and caregivers assist the client to practice their homework. As we know, it is vitally important that parents/caregivers be assigned a meaningful role in treatment. Many of our young cognitively impaired patients can barely interact with their parents. Involvement in this homework gives them an easily fulfilled assignment that gives immediate emotional and therapeutic feedback for the child and the parent/caregiver.

Let's briefly review a few specific horns to better understand their interaction in the hierarchy and discuss some of their unique attributes.

1. The first horn is so easy that it requires almost no abdominal constriction and no constriction of the obicularis oris muscle. It produces sounds almost from the client's vegetative breathing. This horn teaches jaw elevation with minimal lip closure as the client learns to volitionally control airflow. Outside of the hierarchy it improves the production of the sounds /m, b, p /.
2. The second horn is a harmonica-like device that teaches further lip closure and the skill of projecting exhalation in a frontal manner. By gradually covering up the side holes until only the central holes remain exposed, clients can feel (and hear) the redirecting of airflow to the very front of the lips. Used alone, this instrument works on the standard production of /s / by assisting in the correction of a lateral lisp.
3. The third implement is similar to a slide whistle. It requires more than elementary lip closure and teaches first level lip rounding for the production of /w, oo, sh, ch, j /.
4. The fourth horn has a flat mouthpiece and must be blown for a one-two second duration. These variations increase the abdominal and lip closure difficulty, furthers the work on production of /m, b, p / and the prolongation of oral language statements.
5. The horns five, six and seven address additional prolongation of sound, bilabial sounds, oral-tactile defensiveness and low jaw sounds required for vowels and open-mouth consonants. Horns eight and nine work on bilabial sounds and tongue retraction. Horn nine is also an important tool for clients working on oral-nasal contrasts, especially after cleft palate repair.
6. Horns ten through fourteen work on intensifying the degree of duration of exhalation, lip-rounding, lip protrusion, tongue retraction/release, abdominal constriction/tension and they specifically target the correction of the interdental lisp.

As we said horns are fun, and fun is a motivator. Part of the success of this therapeutic approach is that this is work, and for many clients, difficult work. The work is disguised as a toy and the fun that they have repetitively using the toy is exercise, the same as doing ten, twenty or thirty sit-ups is exercise. Recreating a muscle movement through the element of repetition is our goal with each horn used. But keep in mind that this is not play therapy, this is work!

Accordingly there are certain rules that must be followed during therapy:

1. Whether an adult or a child, the client's feet must be firmly on the floor, or other stabilizing surface, and the body should ideally achieve 90° angles in the pelvis, knees and ankles. This does not vary whether your client is in a chair, a wheelchair or you are working with them over therapy balls, bolsters or in a prone-stander. The importance of posture during these exercises cannot be overstated. Stabilization in the body allows for mobility in the mouth. Seating and posture are so imperative that I encourage you to consult with a physical or occupational therapist to achieve optimal or maximal positioning. This postural work has been traditionally in their realm, but for the purposes of these exercises it is now ours, too. During all of your therapy sessions with the client, and during homework, it is important to maintain this maximal posture.
2. The therapist holds the horn and makes sure that there is no biting, because if these horns are used incorrectly they will become toys and rendered ineffective for therapy. If a therapist were to simply hand a child the horn their first reaction would be to put it into their mouth and bite on it. Biting eliminates the therapeutic jaw-lip-tongue dissociation component of horn therapy. Beginning with the ninth horn clients who are cognitively involved with the therapy and who show that they are capable of following directions can be allowed to hold the horns by themselves while the therapist continues to monitor posture and placement. For older children and adults, therapists should use their discretion based on diagnosis and cognitive ability.
3. Remove the horn from their mouth after each blow. This therapy requires repetition. We are recreating muscle movement over and over again to develop strength/muscle memory. The goal with each horn is to be able to blow, with controlled exhalation, twenty-five successive repetitions and for the jaw, lips and tongue to successfully reposition prior to each blow.

The client populations who benefit from these techniques are truly diverse. For example, clients who have the diagnosis of apraxia/dyspraxia can use horn therapy to learn motor-planning movements for the eventual development of speech clarity. These methods sidestep their deficiencies. The stimulus-response technique of the horn creates the muscle action allowing the muscle to take that movement into memory. A clinician can put their hand on a client's stomach and push inward during an exhalation getting the air to go through the horn and produce sound. This gives the client a new awareness of the fact that something that happens in their abdomen creates sound from their mouth. Cognitively impaired clients gain this same awareness devoid of verbal instruction.

Many clients of various diagnosis have insufficient ability to contract and grade their abdominal muscles and must learn to tighten them in order to control their exhalation. Low tone in their abdominal muscles produces insufficient amounts of air that only support single words or short phrases. Horn therapy assists to accomplish this without using compensatory skeletal movements such as shoulder elevation and/or whole body tightening. These are just two kinds of clients whose problems have not been adequately addressed by traditional speech therapy. The result has been a significant inhibition of the client's ability to express themselves at their cognitive level. At the completion of the horn therapy program, whether using the complete hierarchy or a therapist prescribed progression of specific horns, we have clients with the adequate strength and mobility to start traditional articulation therapies, including auditory feedback and the phonological approach - and they got to make a little music along the way.”

Resources:

History about whistles:
http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Whistle.html#ixzz2XO3AVAoy

Talk Tools, company founded by Sarah Rosenfeld Johnson http://www.talktools.com/

Horn Kit http://www.talktools.com/original-horn-kit/

Cochlear Implant in Children

What is Cochlear Implant?

Cochlear implant is a biomedical electronic device that converts acoustic information into electrical current and provides stimulation directly to the auditory nerve, bypassing damaged hair cells in the cochlea that prevent sound from reaching. An implant does not result in "restored" hearing for the recipient, but does allow to perceive sounds.

Cochlear implant is considered a safe and effective medical treatment for both children and adults.

History of Cochlear Implant

In 1880, Alesandro Volta First reported that electrical stimulation to metal rods inserted in his ear canal created an auditory sensation. In 1957 Eyries placed a wire on the auditory nerve of someone who was undergoing surgery. This observation lent to the search for a treatment of profound deafness. In 1961, House and Doyle reported data from two adults with profound deafness whose auditory nerve was stimulated electrically by an electrode placed on and then through the round window and into the scale tympani of the inner ear. In 1964, Simmons placed an electrode through the promontory into the vestibule and directly onto the odious of the cochlea.

In the last decade cochlear implant has developed form speculative laboratory procedure to an accepted clinical practice. During that period implant device has been developed from single channel system to more complex multichannel device. The first single channel cochlear implant was introduced in 1972. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) first approved commercial distribution of the Nucleus 22 multi-channel device in adult in October 1984 and in children in June 1990.

According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, approximately 25,000 individuals have received cochlear implants in the United States, about half of whom are adults. More than 70,000 individuals have received cochlear implants worldwide.

Professor Graeme Clark of the University of Melbourne is the creator and developer of the world’s first multi-channel implant and is considered by many to be the father of the cochlear implant. Professor Clark continues to work closely with Cochlear to bring the gift of hearing to every child and adult who can benefit.

Development of cochlear implant focuses on:

• Miniaturization. A behind-the-ear (BTE) speech processor replaced the body-worn processor for approximately 90%. It works with two 1.4V hearing aid batteries for between seven and twelve days. Consonant, vowel and sentence testing and patient questioning revealed that the BTE speech processor demonstrates a significant improvement in speech understanding compared to the body-worn processor, and that the patient's device acceptance is superior for the BTE processor.
• Developing the multichannel cochlear implant, with combined analogue and pulsatile stimulation (CAP). This device is capable of simultaneously stimulating one electrode with a broadband analogue signal and the rest of electrode channels with a pulsatile signal. The system can also be used for purely analogue or for purely pulsatile stimulation. Preliminary results with the first recipient of a CAP cochlear implant system demonstrate that the device works as expected.

Parts of Cochlear Implant

All systems are composed of:

• internal, implantable component (receiver/stimular and electrodes)
• externally worn microphone and processor.

HiRes™ Auria™ Processor Parts:

A - Headpiece - implant.

B - PowerCel - battery.

C - Processor Module - processing technology that runs the same sound processing software programs as the pager-style processor.

D - Microphone - interchangeable input accessory that captures sound in the ear for normal telephone and headphone use.

How Cochlear Implant Works

Microphone - In this case, directly located on a behind-the-ear headset.

• picks up sound from the environment,
• sends it to the speech processor.

Sound Processor - which is a miniaturized computer powered by batteries

• processes sound into digital information (filters, analyzes and digitizes the sound into coded signals)
• transmits it to the implant over a transmitting antenna, or headpiece, held in place by magnets in both the headpiece and implant.

Implant

• converts digital information into electrical signals,
• sends signals down through tiny wires to the electrode array in the inner ear.

Electrode Array

• delivers electrical signals through tiny contacts, or electrodes, to the hearing nerve,
• the hearing nerve carries the sound information to the brain, where it is heard.

Criteria for Candidacy

There are many different factors to consider when deciding if a cochlear implant is the right choice. In general, cochlear implant is a proven medical option for postlingually and recently prelingually deathened people with severe to profound hearing loss in both ears and additionally for those who have benefited only minimally from hearing aids. Cochlear has successfully implanted candidates of different ages and with differing medical conditions such as Cerebral Palsy, developmental delays, learning disabilities, diabetes, high blood pressure, tinnitus and others. It is very important that the implant recipient have an understanding of a cochlear implant and realistic expectations regarding the use of the device.

Preoperative Patient Selection Criteria for Postlinguistlically Deafened Adults:

1. Profound sensorineural hearing loss, bilaterally
2. Postlinguistically deafened (as defined by acquired deafness after the age of 5 years)
3. Eighteen years of age or older
4. Little or no benefit from a hearing aid (as defined by no open-set speech discrimination when using standardized, recorded tests)
5. No radiological contraindications
6. Psychologically and motivationally suitable
7. Medical examination should show no contraindications for undergoing the operative or training procedure

• No deafness due to lesions of the acoustic nerve or central auditory pathway
• No active middle ear infection
• No absence of cochlear development

Evaluation Process

The preoperative evaluation consists of:

• medical/surgical assessments,
• audiological assessments,
• evaluations by other professionals (speech-language pathologist, psychologist, or social-worker).

Several appointments are required before a decision is made. A candidate and family are informed about the risks and benefits of the procedure. It is important that the candidate be familiarized with the external hardware, counseled, regarding the need for long-term repair maintenance, and told of the remote risk of internal device failure. For example, for the Nucleus multichannel device, the internal device failure rate is less than 2%.

A series of Expectations Questionnaires have been developed for use with adults who are considering a cochlear implant (Cochlear Corporation, 1992). The intent of these questionnaires is to quantify both the prospective candidate’s and the family member’s expectations of device benefit. If expectations are unrealistically high, a decision regarding candidacy should be delayed until further counseling is completed to bring expectations into line.

Medical/Surgical Evaluation

During the initial clinical visits a clinician obtains detailed medical history and completes otologic examination. An evaluation has to determine the etiology of the deafness and establish the age of onset and duration of profound hearing loss. The resurge found that 21% of the variance in postoperative open-set speech perception scores was accounted for by the variable of duration of deafness. Other variables accounted for considerably less variance; however, a number of factors were identified that, when taken in combination, may allow better prediction of postoperative performance.

During the physical examination, it is important to note any potential complicating factors, such as any previously created surgical defects, congenital anomalies, or other conditions that could require alterations to the surgical plan. In general, preexisting ear conditions should be treated prior to final determination of candidacy. A general physical examination and necessary laboratory tests must be performed to establish that the patient is healthy enough to undergo surgery without undue risk.

The most important components of the medical evaluation is a radiologic assessment of the cochleae. High- resolution computerized tomography (CT) scans are essential for studying the structures of the inner ear, specifically the basal turn of the cochlea, and identifying any malformations or disease processes, such as cochlear otosclerosis. The results of imaging will be important from the standpoint of candidate exclusion, ear selection, pre surgical counseling, and general surgical planning and management.

Contraindications to cochlear implantation are:

• cochlear agenesis and absence of an auditory nerve,
• cochlear dysplasia,
• partial or complete obliteration of the basal turn of the cochlea.

When osteoneogenesis is present, usually the surgeon can drill forward several millimeters in scale tympani through the new bone and achieve a partial insertion of the electrode array.

The status of the auditory nerve is evaluated preoperatively by using electrical stimulation of the promontory or round window. This procedure involves the transtympanic placement of a needle electrode onto the area of the promontory or, alternatively, placement of a ball electrode into the round window niche. A small amount of electrical current is passed between the stimulating electrode and a surface electrode that is placed on the ipsilateral cheek or earlobe. The patient should report a consistent hearing sensation that is time-locked to the presentation of the stimulus and in creases in intensity as current is increased.

Individuals who do not exhibit responses to promontory or round window stimulation are generally not considered candidates for cochlear implantation, as a negative result suggests there is an insufficient number of remaining auditory nerve fibers to elicit a hearing perception. Promontory or round window stimulation may not be indicated in all cases. If a candidate demonstrates low-frequency auditory thresholds that are described as hearing rather than tactile, it may not be necessary to perform a promontory test. Whenever there is concern regarding the integrity of the auditory nerve when the patient exhibits a total hearing loss in the ear that is being considered for implantation, promontory stimulation should be performed. Promontory testing is essential when the deafness is due to head trauma, as it is possible that fracture of the temporal bone could be concomitant with severing of the acoustic nerve.

Audiological Evaluation

Level I:

Air/Bone Conduction Audiometry and Immittance Testing.

The audiological assessment consists of measurements of residual hearing and middle ear function, bilaterally.

Air-conduction thresholds should be determined for the frequencies ranging from 125 to 8000 Hz using a calibrated audiometer that has an output greater than 115 dB at 500 through 4000 Hz.

Bone-conduction is performed to rule out a significant conductive component.

Immittance testing is performed to rule out a significant conductive component.

Stapedial reflex test findings should be consistent with a profound sensorineural hearing loss. Most commonly, reflexes will be absent at frequencies above 250 Hz for those with profound sensorineural hearing loss, bilaterally. If reflexes are obtained at frequencies above 250 Hz, auditory brainstem response testing should be performed to rule out a nonorganic component to the hearing loss. Stimuli should consist of both unfiltered clicks and frequency-specific tone pips to ascertain the general configuration of the hearing loss.

Level II:

Aided Audiometric and Speech Testing.

Once a profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss has been determined, the degree of benefit obtained from amplification is measured. First, a hearing aid evaluation should be conducted to establish whether the candidate’s hearing aids are appropriate for the degree of hearing loss. If it is determined that alternative amplification would be more appropriate, a trial period is recommended. For postlinguistically deafened adults, a trial with a tactile device is not recommended because of the limited benefit derived by currently available technology.

The hearing aid evaluation should consist of:

• Standard electroacoustic measurements.
• Soundfield warble-tone thresholds should be carried out in a monitored environment, using a measuring microphone attached to a sound-level meter. The candidate is seated facing a loudspeaker in a sound-treated room at a distance of 1 meter. The measuring probe microphone should be placed in close proximity to the hearing aid microphone. Warble-tone thresholds are assessed at frequencies ranging from 250 to 4000 Hz, and a speech detection threshold is obtained.

Assessment of speech ability

The speech discrimination test battery is administered in the best-aided condition, unless there is more residual hearing in one ear, warranting a monaural workup to assess the contribution of each ear to the binaural listening condition. In this case, a screening test that measures monaural and binaural open-set sentence recognition is recommended prior to the complete evaluation.

The speech perception battery typically includes closed- and open-set measures and an assessment of speechreading ability. Recorded materials are recommended over live-voice presentations so that results can be compared across cochlear implant centers and for a give patient overtime. A thorough test battery, referred to as the Minimal Auditory Capabilities (MAC) battery, was designed by Owens and his colleagues (1985) for postlinguistically deafened adults with profound hearing loss.

It includes 14 subtests that evaluate:

• perception of suprasegmental and segmental aspects of speech,
• environmental sounds recognition,
• speechreading enhancement.

The battery includes both easier closed-set and more difficult open-set measures.

When the medical and audiologic assessments are completed, the cochlear implant team should discuss the candidate’s preoperative profile. The medical findings are reviewed; paying close attention to the results of the high-resolution CT scans. The audiologic findings are discussed in relation to the potential for postoperative benefit based on findings from a large pool of implant recipients.

Procedures of evaluating efficiency of cochlear implant

Hearing sounds without hearing aid

Hearing sounds with hearing aid

                         

Improvement in acuity level and SAT

The benefits of cochlear implantation have to be weighed carefully against eventual adverse effects.

The present multi-centric study involved 19 centres, 16 of them in German speaking countries, 1 British, 1 Polish and 1 Hungarian. 60 post-lingually deafened adults with a mean age of 47.5 years (20-70) and mean duration of deafness 5.3 years (0.5-20) have been evaluated with the MED-EL COMBI 40 cochlear implant which implements a high-rate continuous-interleaved-sampling strategy with 8 channels. Safety and effectiveness data have been collected. Speech perception tests include a 16-consonant, an 8-vowel, a sentence and a monosyllabic word test in all languages and a 2-digit figure test in all languages but English. Test intervals are 1, 3, 6 months and 1 year after first fitting. 41 of the 60 post-lingually deafened adult study patients have completed their 6-month evaluation. While their pre-operative monosyllabic word score was 0%, their mean monosyllabic word score 6 months after first fitting was 48% (8-90) with a median of 50%. The mean sentence understanding was 84% (24-100) with a median of 90%. The respective values for the 1-year evaluations with 25 patients are a mean of 50% (5-85), with a median of 60% for the monosyllables and a mean of 89% (30-100), with a median of 97% for the sentences.

The most important aim of a cochlear implant usually is to achieve speech understanding. Music-perception is also an aspect of hearing that can be considered as a contribution to the total benefit a patient gains from his implant…The first results from implant users show a tendency that temporal features, like the ones discriminating different rhythms, can be perceived better than features related to pitch, like expressed discrimination and recognition of tunes or different musical instruments.

Programming system

Each speech processor is programmed to meet individual’s hearing needs. Different speech coding strategies emphasize different pitch, loudness and timing cues. The brain receives information within microseconds of the microphone picking up sound, so individual hears sounds as they occur.

The programming system includes IBM PC-compatible computer, two computer interface cards, an interface unit, the necessary cabling, and customized software.

                                                                                        

4- to 6-weeks after the surgical placement the cochlear implant recipient returns for the fitting. The first step is to program the speech processor. Customized software is used to perform specific psychophysical tests. The most important measurement is a determination of the electrical dynamic range of hearing for each electrode pair. This is accomplished by establishing:

• the threshold and
• the maximum comfortable loudness level for electrical stimulation. Electrical dynamic ranges are on the order of 6 to 25 dB. The software automatically assigns a frequency range to each electrode that will be used in the MAP.

Auditory Training

Following the fitting of the external equipment, an individualized program of auditory training should be initiated. The length of this training will vary for each individual, extending from 4 to 10 weeks for a postlinguistically deafened adult, to long-term habilitation for a prelinguistically deafened child. It is important to begin auditory training at a level wherein the tasks are not too difficult for the individual.

In this way, progress can be based on achievements, and discouragement on the patient’s part can be minimized. Screening tests can be used to determine the level where an individual should begin his or her training.

As with any medical procedure, the results of implantation cannot be predicted prior to surgery and recipients may experience a wide range of outcomes. For individuals who lost their hearing after learning to speak, the perception of speech and sounds after implantation may initially seem quite different from what they remember. After using the cochlear implant for several months or more, these individuals often report that they perceive speech to be more natural or closer to their memory of familiar sounds.

Training phases

Training begins with speech stimuli presented in an auditory-visual context.

After success auditory-only speech material may be introduced.

Initially, this material is presented in a closed- set format; later, contextually based open- set material can be used.

Historically, both analytic and synthetic speech materials have been employed.

A. The analytic materials were vowels and consonants presented in a nonsense syllable paradigm in three conditions:

• speechreading only,
• speechreading plus hearing,
• hearing only.

B. The synthetic task was continuous discourse speech tracking.

The clinician verbally sends contextual material to the patient. The patient was required to repeat it back verbally with 100% accuracy. A number of prompts and strategies were used to assure 100% reception of the information by the listener. Results were described as the number of words per minute correctly received by the listener. Several investigators have noted that the tracking rate was influenced by the familiarity with and level of difficulty of the material, the speaking rate of the clinician and the patient, and the types of strategies and prompts used.

Professionals who compose the implant team?

Among the professionals who may work as part of the cochlear implant team are audiologists, speech-language pathologists, educators, surgeons, medical specialists, psychologists and counselors.

Audiologists are involved in many of the components of the cochlear implant program, including determining the candidacy of an individual for implantation, as well as activating and programming of the speech processor after surgery. Both audiologists and speech-language pathologists provide aural rehabilitation services to implant recipients to facilitate their ability to detect and understand speech with the cochlear implant. Aural rehabilitation services may include processes to enhance communication, auditory training and speechreading, training on the use and care of the implant, and support of the needs of the recipient and family.

Cost of implant

The costs of cochlear implants vary widely depending on a number of factors, including the duration and extent of a patient’s hearing loss prior to surgery. The average cost for the entire procedure, including the post-operative aural rehabilitation process, exceeds $40,000.

Medicare, TRICARE, the Veteran’s Administration, and all other federal health plans provide benefits for all cochlear implant services. Federal law requires that all state Medicaid agencies provide coverage for cochlear implant for children under 21 years old, and most provide benefits for adults as well. Vocational rehabilitation, maternal and children’s health services, and other combined federal-state programs also often provide benefits.

Manufacturers approved by FDA to distribute Cochlear Implants in the U.S.

Advanced Bionics: http://www.advancedbionics.com

Cochlear Limited: http://cochlear.com

MED-EL: http://www.medel.com     

Resources:

Residual Hearing after Cochlear Implantation. Presented at the Second Cong. of Asia Pacific Symp. on Cochlear Implant and Rel. Sci., 1999

Alpiner, J, McCarthy, P (1993) Rehabilitative Audiology: Children and Adults, Williams & Wilkins, 417 – 437

Hochmair-Desoyer IJ, Zierhofer C, Hochmair ES (1993) New hardware for analogue and combined analogue and pulsatile sound-encoding strategies, Prog Brain Res, 97: 291-300

Sorkin D.L, (2002). Cochlear implant candidacy and outcomes: 2002 Update. Hearing Loss: The Journal of Self Help for Hard of Hearing People.

Kiefer J, von Illberg C et al. (1998). Results of cochlear implantation in patients with severe to profound hearing loss- implications for patient selection. Audiology, 37(6): 382-395

Alpiner, J, McCarthy, P (1993) Rehabilitative Audiology: Children and Adults, Williams & Wilkins, after A. L. Beiter, J. A. Brimacombe, Cochlear Implants, p.421

Gerfand, S. A.(1997).Essential of Audiology, Second Edition. NY: Thieme

University of Iowa Cochlear Implant Project, Gantz (1992)

Gerfand, S. A.(1997).Essential of Audiology, Second Edition. NY: Thieme

Gerfand, S. A.(1997).Essential of Audiology, Second Edition. NY: Thieme

Gerfand, S. A.(1997).Essential of Audiology, Second Edition. NY: Thieme

Helms J, Müller J, Schon F, Moser L, Arnold W, Janssen T, Ramsden R, von Ilberg C, Kiefer J, Pfennigdorf T,Gstöttner W, Baumgartner W, Ehrenberger K, Skarzynski H, Ribari O, Thumfart W, Stephan K, Mann W, Heinemann M, Zorowka P, Lippert KL, Zenner HP, Bohndord M, Hüttenbrink K, Hochmair-Desoyer I et al. (1997). Evaluation of performance with the COMBI40 cochlear implant in adults: a multicentric clinical study. ORL, 59: 23-35

Schulz E, Kerber M (1994). Music perception with the MED-EL implants. In Advances in Cochlear Implants, Eds. Hochmair-Desoyer IJ, Hochmair ES, Wien, 326-332

Gerfand, S. A.(1997).Essential of Audiology, Second Edition. NY: Thieme

Hochmair-Desoyer IJ, Zierhofer C, Hochmair ES (1993) New hardware for analogue and combined analogue and pulsatile sound-encoding strategies, Prog Brain Res, 97: 291-300

Schmidt M, Griesser A (1997) Long-Term stability of fitting parameters with the COMBI40. The American Journal of Otology, 18 (suppl 6)

Gerfand, S. A.(1997).Essential of Audiology, Second Edition. NY: Thieme

Residual Hearing after Cochlear Implantation. Presented at the Second Cong. of Asia Pacific Symp. on Cochlear Implant and Rel. Sci., 1999

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2004) Position Statement: Cochlear Implants. ASHA Supplement 24, in press Advanced Bionics

Journal Articles:

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2004) Guidelines: Cochlear Implants. ASHA Supplement 24, in press.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2004) Position Statement: Cochlear Implants. ASHA Supplement 24, in press.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2004) Technical Report: Cochlear Implants. ASHA Supplement 24, in press.

Comparison of performance of the MED-EL body worn speech processor CIS PRO+ with the new MED-EL BTE processor TEMPO+ in adults. Presented at the Second Cong. of Asia Pacific Symp. on Cochlear Implant and Rel. Sci., 1999

Helms J, Müller J, Schon F, Moser L, Arnold W, Janssen T, Ramsden R, von Ilberg C, Kiefer J, Pfennigdorf T,Gstöttner W, Baumgartner W, Karinen PJ., Sorri M..J., Valimaa T. T., Hüttunen KH, Löpponen HJ (2001) Cochlear implant patients and quality of life, Scand Audiol Suppl, 52: 48-50

Kiefer J, von Illberg C et al. (1998). Results of cochlear implantation in patients with severe to profound hearing loss- implications for patient selection. Audiology, 37(6): 382-395.

Residual Hearing after Cochlear Implantation. Presented at the Second Cong. of Asia Pacific Symp. on Cochlear Implant and Rel. Sci., 1999

Schmidt M, Griesser A (1997) Long-Term stability of fitting parameters with the COMBI40. The American Journal of Otology, 18 (suppl 6).

Schulz E, Kerber M (1994). Music perception with the MED-EL implants. In Advances in Cochlear Implants, Eds. Hochmair-Desoyer IJ, Sorkin D.L, (2002). Cochlear implant candidacy and outcomes: 2002 Update. Hearing Loss: The Journal of Self Help for Hard of Hearing Hochmair E S, Wien, 326-332.

Textbook Chapters:

Alpiner, J, McCarthy, P (1993). Rehabilitative Audiology: Children and Adults, Williams & Wilkins

Gerfand, S. A.(1997).Essential of Audiology, Second Edition. NY: Thieme.

Hochmair-Desoyer IJ, Zierhofer C, Hochmair ES (1993) New hardware for analogue and combined analogue and pulsatile sound-encoding strategies, Prog Brain Res, 97: 291-300.

Hüttenbrink K, Hochmair-Desoyer I et. al. (1997). Evaluation of performance with the COMBI40 cochlear implant in adults: a multicentric clinical study. ORL, 59: 23-35.

Websites to search for updated info:

www.hearingloss.org   

www.asha.org  

www.fda.gov 

www.nejm.org  

Homework in Early Schooling

2012

Throughout the school year I’ve had numerous, hot discussions with the parents about a necessity and role of homework for the younger students. I’ve tried to confront my opinion and believes with the actual resurge outcomes and that’s what I found.

Role of Homework in Early Schooling

Even though the resurge states that homework have smaller effects at lower grade levels then at higher it is still recommended for elementary students for few reasons:

• homework helps young children to develop good study habits,
• homework fosters kids’ positive attitudes toward school,
• homework teaches youngsters that learning takes work at home as well as at school.

2012

Homework should have different purposes at different grade levels:

• in the earliest grades - homework fosters positive attitudes, habits, and character traits; permits appropriate parent involvement; and reinforces learning of simple skills introduced in class,
• in upper elementary grades - homework plays a more direct role in fostering improved school achievement,
• in 6th grade and beyond - homework plays an important role in improving standardized test scores and grades.

2012

Time Spent on Homework

Research findings support the common “10-minute rule”, which states that all daily homework assignments combined should take about as long to complete as 10 minutes multiplied by the student's grade level and when required reading is included as a type of homework, the 10-minute rule might be increased to 15 minutes.

Many teachers however follow these homework guidelines:

• Grades 1-3: 20 minutes of homework per day
• Grades 4-6: 20 to 40 minutes per day
• Grades 7-9: 2 hours per day

Some schools set policies while, in other schools, teachers may set homework limits for their classes. Some students can handle more homework than others.

"For children in grades K through 2, homework is most effective when it does not exceed 10 to 20 minutes each day. Most children in grades three through six can handle 30 to 60 minutes a day" (Chaika, 2000).

The research on homework indicates that the positive effects of homework relate to the amount of homework that the student completes rather than the amount of time spent on homework or the amount of homework actually assigned. Therefore, teachers must carefully plan and assign homework in a way that maximizes the potential for student success.

2012

Research-Based Homework Guidelines

Research provides strong evidence that, when used appropriately, homework benefits student achievement. To make sure that homework is appropriate, teachers should follow these guidelines:

• Assign purposeful homework. Legitimate purposes for homework include introducing new content, practicing a skill or process that students can do independently but not fluently, elaborating on information that has been addressed in class to deepen students' knowledge, and providing opportunities for students to explore topics of their own interest.
• Design homework to maximize the chances that students will complete it. For example, ensure that homework is at the appropriate level of difficulty. Students should be able to complete homework assignments independently with relatively high success rates, but they should still find the assignments challenging enough to be interesting.
• Involve parents in appropriate ways (for example, as a sounding board to help students summarize what they learned from the homework) without requiring parents to act as teachers or to police students' homework completion.
• Carefully monitor the amount of homework assigned so that it is appropriate to students' age levels and does not take too much time away from other home activities.

2012

Parent Involvement

Series of studies recommend interactive homework in which:

• Parents receive clear guidelines spelling out their role.
• Teachers do not expect parents to act as experts regarding content or to attempt to teach the content.
• Parents ask questions that help students clarify and summarize what they have learned.

Especially useful for parent-child relations purposes are assignments calling for students to show or explain their written work or other products completed at school to their parents and get their reactions or to interview their parents to develop information about parental experiences or opinions relating to topics studied in social studies. Such assignments cause students and their parents or other family members to become engaged in conversations that relate to the academic curriculum and thus extend the students' learning. Furthermore, because these are likely to be genuine conversations rather than more formally structured teaching/learning tasks, both parents and children are likely to experience them as enjoyable rather than threatening.

2012

A publication from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI, 1996) suggests four ways for parents to help a child with homework:

• Show that you think homework is important by providing a consistent time and place for it.
• Help your child concentrate by turning off the television, banning personal telephone calls, and setting a good example by reading and writing yourself.
• Make sure your child has any needed supplies and access to reference materials.
• Check over the work your child is doing, offering help or monitoring when needed. Know what the teacher expects and monitor more closely if a child is having problems with completing work.
• Provide guidance and encouragement. Your job is not to do the work but to help in ways your child needs. Talking about an assignment may help a child work through it. Teach ways for a child to divide a large assignment into manageable parts. Look for work that you can praise.
• Discuss your child's homework difficulties with the teacher. Work together with the teacher to resolve problems and work out a plan to improve homework completion. Check to see if the plan is helping.

2012

References:

Balli, S. J., (1998). When mom and dad help: Student reflections on parent involvement with homework. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 31(3).

Chaika, G., (2000). Help! Homework is wrecking my home life! Education World.

Cooper, H., (1989a). Homework. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Cooper, H., (1989b). Synthesis of research on homework. Educational Leadership, 47(3).

Cooper, H., (2007). The battle over homework (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A., (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987–2003. Review of Educational Research, 76(1).

Epstein, J., (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview.

Epstein, J. L., & Becker, H. J., (1982). Teachers' reported practices of parent involvement: Problems and possibilities. Elementary School Journal, 83.

Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E., (2003). Looking in classrooms (9th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Bassler, O. C., & Burow, R., (1995). Parents' reported involvement in students' homework: Strategies and practices. The Elementary School Journal, 95(5).

McEntire, N., (2001). Homework: Amount, Effects, Help for Students and Parents

 (Last updated March 2006)

Walberg, H. J., (1999). Productive teaching. In H. C. Waxman & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), New directions for teaching practice research (pp. 75–104). Berkeley, CA: McCutchen

2012

Webs:

http://ecap.crc.illinois.edu/poptopics/homework.html

A Teacher's Guide to Homework Tips for Parents

http://www2.ed.gov/teachers/how/parents/homework-tips/edlite-slide001.html

Homework Strategies from Education World

Homework strategies for teachers, including how to get students to do it.

http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/strategy/strategy002.shtml

http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin182.shtml

2012

Other Resources

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Title: Parental Involvement in Homework: A Review of Current Research and Its Implications for Teachers, After School Program Staff, and Parent Leaders

Author(s) Walker, Joan M. T.; Hoover-Dempsey, Kathleen V.; Whetsel, Darlene R.; Green, Christa L.

Author Affiliation: Harvard Family Research Project, Cambridge, M.

Source: Harvard Family Research Project Pages: 10

Publication Date: October 2004

Availability: Harvard Family Research Project, Harvard Graduate School of Education, 3 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; e-mail: hfrp@gse.harvard.edu

Language: English

Document Type: Reports--Descriptive (141)

Journal Announcement: JUL2005

Parents often become involved in their children's education through homework. Whether children do homework at home, complete it in after school programs or work on it during the school day, homework can be a powerful tool for (a) letting parents and other adults know what the child is learning, (b) giving children and parents a reason to talk about what's going on at school, and (c) giving teachers an opportunity to hear from parents about children's learning. In 2001 the authors reviewed research on parental involvement in children's homework (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). The review focused on understanding why parents become involved in their children's homework, what strategies they employ, and how involvement contributes to student learning. The review supported theoretical arguments that parents choose to become involved in homework because they believe they should be involved, believe their involvement will make a positive difference in their children's learning, and perceive that their involvement is invited, expected, and valued by school personnel (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995, 1997). The review also suggested that parents engage in a wide range of activities in this effort, from establishment of basic structures for homework performance to more complex efforts focused on teaching for understanding and helping students develop effective learning strategies. Descriptors: Parent Child Relationship; Learning Strategies; Homework; Parent Participation; After School Programs; Parent Teacher Cooperation; Parent Attitudes

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Title: Family Help and Homework Management in Urban and Rural Secondary Schools

Author(s) Xu, Jianzhong

Source: Teachers College Record, v106 n9 p1786-1803 Sep 2004 Pages: 18

Publication Date: September 2004

ISSN: 0161-4681

Availability: Journal Customer Services, Blackwell Publishing, 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148; e-mail: subscrip@bos.blackwellpublishing.com

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)

Journal Announcement: JUL2005

This article calls attention to developmental and home conditions that affect the development of good work habits through homework. The first section examines recent studies that have alluded to the possibility of developing good work habits through family involvement with secondary school homework. The second section describes two survey studies, in urban and rural secondary schools, that explicitly link homework management to family help and grade level. The data suggest that secondary students could still benefit from clear expectations from adult assistance regarding how to foster the development of homework management strategies, regardless of helper's educational background. The data also suggest, however, that such help is overshadowed by increasing internal distractions students encounter as they move from middle school into high school. The final section discusses implications for future research and practice regarding how to foster adolescents' work habits through homework, particularly for high school students. Descriptors: Educational Background; Secondary Schools; Family Involvement; Homework; Study Habits; Rural Areas; Urban Areas; Family Environment

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Title: Homework as the Job of Childhood

Author(s) Corno, Lyn; Xu, Jianzhong

Source: Theory Into Practice, v43 n3 p227-233 Aug 2004 Pages: 7

Publication Date: August 01, 2004

ISSN: 0040-5841

Availability: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Journal Subscription Department, 10

Industrial Avenue, Mahwah, NJ 07430-2262; e-mail: journals@erlbaum.com

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080)

Journal Announcement: JUL2005

The authors undertook a series of empirical studies to examine how students experience homework at various grade levels. The research casts a different light on the century-old practice of doing homework, suggesting it is the quintessential job of childhood. Homework creates a situation where the child must complete assigned tasks under minimal supervision and after little initial training. Doing well on that job gets one further along in school. As in the workplace, when children move from beginners to experts with homework, they demonstrate responsibility and become skilled at managing tasks. These positive outcomes enhance the intended deepening of students' subject matter knowledge. However, the authors assert that another virtue of homework is that it can prepare children for jobs they will have one day; it may develop an aptitude for gainful employment. Descriptors: Homework; Children; Student Responsibility; Role of Education; Age Differences

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Title: Homework Motivation and Preference: A Learner-Centered Homework Approach

Author(s) Hong, Eunsook; Milgram, Roberta M.; Rowell, Lonnie L.

Source: Theory Into Practice, v43 n3 p197-204 Aug 2004 Pages: 8

Publication Date: August 01, 2004

ISSN: 0040-5841

Availability: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Journal Subscription Department, 10

Industrial Avenue, Mahwah, NJ 07430-2262; e-mail: journals@erlbaum.com

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080)

Journal Announcement: JUL2005

Target Audience: Parents; Students; Counselors

Students, teachers, counselors, and parents are all important in determining the degree to which homework is effective in meeting its goals. Teachers assign homework, parents provide the environment in which it is done, and students each with a unique profile of motivation and preference for learning do the homework. It is a challenge for everyone involved to cooperate, share information about children's homework motivation and preferences, and develop strategies to be used at school and at home to attain a better match between what the child likes to do and has to do when learning. This article prepared to assist teachers, parents, and counselors to meet this challenge describes a conceptual homework model and a technique of assessing homework motivation and preferences based on the model. Intervention strategies for how to use this knowledge to make students' homework performance more effective and enjoyable are suggested. Descriptors: Student Motivation; Intervention; Homework; Student Centered Curriculum; Cognitive Style; Models; Measures (Individuals)

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Title: The Motivational Benefits of Homework: A Social-Cognitive Perspective

Author(s) Bempechat, Janine

Source: Theory Into Practice, v43 n3 p189-196 Aug 2004 Pages: 8

Publication Date: August 01, 2004

ISSN: 0040-5841

Availability: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Journal Subscription Department, 10

Industrial Avenue, Mahwah, NJ 07430-2262; e-mail: journals@erlbaum.com

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080); Opinion papers (120); Reports--Descriptive (141)

Journal Announcement: JUL2005

This article argues that, as a pedagogical practice, homework plays a critical, long-term role in the development of children's achievement motivation. Homework provides children with time and experience to develop positive beliefs about achievement, as well as strategies for coping with mistakes, difficulties, and setbacks. This article reviews current research on achievement motivation and examines the ways parents and teachers encourage or inhibit the development of adaptive beliefs about learning. It then integrates the literature on homework and achievement motivation and shows that homework's motivational benefits, while not named as such, have been in evidence for some time. Finally, the article argues that homework is a vital means by which children can receive the training they need to become mature learners. Descriptors: Homework; Coping; Student Motivation; Academic Achievement; Educational Benefits; Cognitive Development; Social Development

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Title: Low-Income Parents' Beliefs About their Role in Children's Academic Learning

Author(s) Drummond, Kathryn V.; Stipek, Deborah

Source: Elementary School Journal, v104 n3 p197 Jan 2004 Pages: 18

Publication Date: January 2004

ISSN: 0013-5984

Availability: University of Chicago Press, Journals Division, P.O. Box 37005, Chicago, IL 60637; e-mail: subscriptions@press.uchicago.edu

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)

Journal Announcement: AUG2005

In individual telephone interviews, 234 low-income African-American, Caucasian, and Latino parents rated the importance of helping their second- and third-grade children in reading, math, and homework and of knowing what their children are learning. Parents reported whether they had taught their child in math and reading and read with their child in the past week. They also answered open-ended questions about the type of help they deemed appropriate. On questionnaires, teachers rated each student's reading and math skills and noted whether they had given a child's parent suggestions for helping with either subject. Findings showed that parents rated the importance of helping their child with academic work very high. Parents of second graders tended to rate the importance of helping higher than did parents of third graders. Similar to past research, ratings varied systematically as a function of parents' perceptions of children's academic performance and as a function of whether teachers had offered suggestions; however, parents perceived helping with reading as more important than helping with math. Findings implied that teachers who desire more parent involvement might need to use different strategies for the two subjects. In addition to specific approaches for helping with math, reading, and homework, parents noted other activities they believed would help their children succeed. Descriptors: Parents as Teachers; Parent School Relationship; Grade 2; Grade 3; Mathematics Instruction; Homework; Parent Attitudes; Parent Role; Low Income Groups; Reading Instruction

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Title: Homework Tips for Parents = Consejos para los padres sobre la tarea escola.

Author Affiliation: Department of Education, Washington, DC. Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency Affairs. (EDD00063)

Pages: 21

Publication Date: May 2003

Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.

Availability: ED Pubs, Education Publications Center, U.S. Department of Education, P.O. Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398; e-mail: edpubs@inet.ed.gov

Language: English; Spanish

Document Type: Guides--Non-classroom (055)

Geographic Source: U.S.; District of Columbia

Journal Announcement: RIEFEB2004 

Target Audience: Parents

Homework has been a part of students' lives since the beginning of formal school in the United States; the push for increased homework has increased, fueled by rising academic standards. Noting that parents involved can have either a positive or a negative influence on the value of homework, this booklet, in both English and Spanish, offers suggestions to parents to enhance the effectiveness of children homework experience. The booklet first offers general homework tips, such as providing a suitable space for study and helping with time management. Specific tips are then offered for homework in reading, such as having the child read aloud, or asking what the child thinks will happen next in the story; and for homework in math, such as engaging frequently with the teacher to monitor math progress, and not teaching strategies or approaches that may conflict with ones the teacher is using. The guide concludes by highlighting the education reform principles of the No Child Left Behind Act. (HTH)

Descriptors: Beginning Reading; *Homework; Mathematics Instruction; Multilingual Materials; Parent Participation; *Parent Student Relationship; *Parents as Teachers; Reading Instruction; Student Improvement

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Title: A Model of Homework's Influence on the Performance Evaluations of Elementary School Students.

Author(s) Cooper, Harris; Jackson, Kristina; Nye, Barbara; Lindsay, James J.

Source: Journal of Experimental Education, v69 n2 p181-99 Win 2001

Publication Date: 2001

ISSN: 0022-0973

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)

Journal Announcement: CIJNOV2001

Tested a model of the influence of homework on classroom performance using a sample of 429 students in grades 2 and 4, their parents, and their 28 teachers. Data reveal the critical role of parents in both the homework process and the success of elementary school students. Positive parent involvement in homework was the strongest predictor of grades. (SLD)

Descriptors: Academic Achievement; Elementary Education; *Elementary School Students; *Homework; *Parent Participation; Parent Role; Parents; *Performance Based Assessment

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Title: Helping with Homework: A Parent's Guide to Information Problem-Solving.

Author(s) Berkowitz, Robert

Source: Emergency Librarian, v25 n4 p45-46 Mar-Apr 1998

Publication Date: 1998

Notes: For journal availability see new title, Teacher Librarian.

ISSN: 0315-8888

Language: English

Document Type: Guides--Non-classroom (055); ERIC product (071); Journal articles (080)

Journal Announcement: CIJDEC1998

Target Audience: Parents

Summarizes the Big6 Skills information problem-solving approach: (1) Task Definition; (2) Information Seeking Strategies; (3) Location and Access; (4) Use of Information; (5) Synthesis; and (6) Evaluation. Discusses parent and student roles in information problem solving, the value of assignments, and technology and the Big Six. (PEN)

Descriptors: Elementary Secondary Education; *Homework; *Information Literacy; *Information Skills; Information Technology; Parent Participation; *Parent Role; Parent Student Relationship; *Problem Solving; *Student Role

Identifiers: *Big Six; ERIC Digests

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EJ576389 SP527111

Title: Creating Success.

Author(s) Nuzum, Margaret

Source: Instructor, v108 n3 p86-91 Oct 1998

Publication Date: 1998

Notes: This issue is from the Primary version of Instructor.

ISSN: 1049-5851

Language: English

Document Type: Guides--Non-classroom (055); Journal articles (080)

Journal Announcement: CIJJUL1999

Target Audience: Practitioners; Teachers

To improve homework quality in the classroom, teachers should clear up homework fogginess and use strategies for success, including creating goal-directed assignments, balancing homework, allowing time to finish assignments, viewing homework-assignment time as part of the learning process, helping students organize their homework, and helping students and parents estimate the amount of time to spend on homework. (SM)

Descriptors: Elementary Education; *Homework; *Parent Role; Parent School Relationship; Parent Teacher Cooperation; Teacher Responsibility; Time on Task

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Title: Changing Homework Habits: Rethinking Attitudes.

Author(s) Tavares, Liliana

Source: Forum, v36 n1 Jan-Mar 1998

Publication Date: 1998

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080); Opinion papers (120)

Journal Announcement: CIJMAY2000

Discusses eight suggestions that teachers can use for enhancing their students' interest in homework. (Author/VWL)

Descriptors: *Homework; *Student Attitudes; *Student Motivation; Study Habits; *Teacher Attitudes

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Title: Teacher-Selected Strategies for Improving Homework Completion.

Author(s) Bryan, Tanis; Sullivan-Burstein, Karen

Source: Remedial and Special Education, v19 n5 p263-75 Sep-Oct 1998

Publication Date: 1998

ISSN: 0741-9325

Language: English

Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)

Journal Announcement: CIJJUL1999

Three studies examined the effects of different interventions used with elementary students with learning disabilities and typical students on spelling and math homework completion and weekly quiz performance. Three intervention strategies resulted in significant increases in homework completion: giving students real-life assignments, using homework planners, and graphing homework completion. (Author/CR)

Descriptors: Assignments; *Classroom Techniques; Elementary Education; *Homework; Instructional Design; *Learning Disabilities; Mathematics Instruction; *Performance Factors; *Self Management; Spelling; *Student Motivation; Tests

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Title: "Did You Complete All Your Homework Tonight, Dear?"

Author(s) O'Rourke-Ferrara, Catherine

Pages: 28

Publication Date: 1998

Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.

Language: English

Document Type: Information Analysis (070); Opinion papers (120); Reports--Research (143)

Geographic Source: U.S.; New York

Journal Announcement: RIEMAY1999

Homework is often controversial, especially in the lower grades. This paper begins by surveying research pertaining to homework in elementary school and identifying the goals and objectives of the homework process. The discussion of the literature covers: (1) views on homework through the 20th century; (2) a need for homework policies; (3) advantages of homework; (4) disadvantages of homework; (5) effects of homework at each grade level; (6) comparison of the United States to other countries; and (7) making homework work. The paper next presents ideas for teachers, parents, and students regarding homework, including a recommended homework policy, a parents' checklist for monitoring study, and sample letter to parents about homework. The paper then describes a survey about homework habits administered to 40 parents and 60 students in second grade. Findings indicated that 83 percent of parents like very much that their children get homework, and 78 percent of students also enjoy homework. Students indicated a belief that by doing homework, they will become smarter. (Contains 26 references.) (EV)

Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; Comparative Education; Educational Practices; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; *Homework; *Parent Attitudes; *Student Attitudes

2012

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